Preface
1 Introduction
Fossilization and Ultimate Attainment
General failure
Differential success/failure
A Conceptual Framework
An Outline of the Book
2 What Is Fossilization?
Selinker's Definitions
Others' View
Dictionary Definitions
An Alternative Definition
Key Issues
Is fossilization global or local?
Is fossilization a product or a process?
Summary
3 Behavioral Reflexes and Causal Variables
An Overview
Sample Explanations
Absence of corrective feedback
Quality of input
Lack of access to universal grammar
Failure of parameter resetting
Learning inhibiting learning
Automatization of faulty knowledge
Lack of understanding
Processing constraints
Lack of sensitivity to input
Change in emotional state
Natural inclination to focus on content, not on form
Avoidance
Satisfaction of communicative needs
Lack of acculturation
Will to maintain identity
Two Primary Determinants of Lack of Ability
Summary
4 A Macroscopic Analysis: Critical Period Effects
The Critical Period Hypothesis
CPH in FLA and SLA
The Modular Nature of CP
Critical Period Effects on Language Learning
Summary
5 A Macroscopic Analysis: Native Language Transfer
Transfer-inspired Delay in L2 Learning
'Transfer to Somewhere' and 'Transfer to Nowhere'
Transfer of 'Thinking for Speaking'
Preprogramming
The Schwartz and Sprouse (1996) study
The Sorace (1993) study
Summary
6 A Microscopic Analysis: Some Empirical Evidence
Some Empirical Studies
The longitudinal approach
The typical-error approach
The advanced-learner approach
The corrective-feedback approach
The length-of-residence approach
Critique of the Methodologies
Two recent longitudinal studies
Is stabilization synonymous with fossilization?
Should a longitudinal study last five years or longer?
The Modular Nature of Fossilization
Linguistic Features Prone to Fossilization
The Multiple Effects Principle
Summary
7 Second Language Instruction and Fossilization
To What Extent Does Instruction Aid Acquisition?
Explicit or implicit instruction?
Is grammar instruction necessary?
The zone of capability
To What Extent Does Instruction Promote Fossilization?
Classroom input
Pedagogic strategies
Opportunity for use of languageSummary
8 Summary and Conclusion
A Synopsis
Implications for Research and Practice
General Directions for Future Research
References
Index
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